 Description: A large, dark green, vigorous, leathery and invading fern with 'Christmas tree' shaped fronds. Produces toxins that retard the growth and germination of other species. As A Soil Indicator: Very low Calcium, High Potassium, High Zinc, High Aluminum Very little organic matter, More common in Sandy or well drained soils. Life cycle: Perennial. Spores germinate in ash beds and complete the sexual portion of their life. Asexual ferns form and produce patches. Shading or allelopathy (the production of toxins) usually eliminates other plants within the patches. New fronds emerge from underground rhizomes in spring, and mature over summer. These fronds die in winter (usually after frost) and fall, smothering other plants. Patches spread about 1 m per year. Beneficial: Apparently used for Aboriginal and Maori food, bedding, thatch. Detrimental: Produces toxins that retard the growth and germination of other species. Toxicity: Toxic to sheep, pigs, people and especially horses and cattle when eaten in large quantities. Green fronds are most toxic, but dead fronds and rhizomes are also toxic. Hay containing Bracken can be toxic Legislation: The Wildlife Conservation Act prohibits the removal of this species from natural stands on government land. 
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 Description: An erect or sprawling, annual or biennial herb to 1.5 metres with round lobed leaves, heart shaped cotyledons, small, 5-petalled white or pink flowers from April to November. As A Soil Indicator: Very low Calcium, high Potassium, very high Magnesium, high Iron, Low humas in the soil, anaerobic bacteria dominate, potential waterlogged area, compacted soil, poor drainage, High Aluminum levels Life cycle: Annual or biennial. Germinates in spring to autumn and grows rapidly. Flowers August-December. Spring germinating plants may flower when only a few centimetres high and survive over summer to become biennial. Beneficial: Palatable fodder Detrimental: Weed of stock yards, crops, vegetables, pastures, gardens, roadsides, waterways and disturbed areas. Difficult to control. May cause staggers in stock that graze significant quantities. It is a potential host of Root Lesion Nematodes (Pratylenchus neglectus) allowing some build up of numbers Toxicity: Sheep, especially lambs are more susceptible than cattle or horses to poisoning. Most cases occur in the July to October period with some as late as December when Mallow has made up a large part of their diet for days or weeks. Toxicity may be passed to lambs through milk. May contain toxic quantities of nitrate in unmanaged overfertilised pasture.
 Description: Bidens pilosa is an annual plant producing an erect, much-branched stem up to 100cm tall, though the plant can often flower, seed and then die when much smaller As A Soil Indicator: Very low Calcium , Very low Phosphorus, High Potassium, High Magnesium, High Manganese, High Boron Life cycle: Bidens pilosa normally behaves as an annual weed but at least one form, B. pilosa var. radiata, may behave as a perennial. One isolated plant can produce over 30,000 seeds, which are generally highly viable. Seeds germinate on the soil surface or in shallow soil (to a depth of 1 cm). Seeds at greater depths remain viable in the soil for many years. There is usually a great flush of germination after tillage of the soil. Seeds are widely dispersed through the fruits hook-like bristles that embed themselves in clothing and the fur of mammals and feathers of birds. They are also spread by wind, water and soil. Beneficial: Roots, leaves and seed have been reported to possess antibacterial, ant dysenteric, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antimalarial, diuretic, hepato-protective and hypotensive activities. Detrimental: Bidens pilosa is a serious weed in many cropping systems in many countries where it reduces yield because of its fast growth and competitive abilities which include allopathic properties. Family: Asteraceae, which are known for attracting beneficial insects
 Description: Scotch thistle is an erect annual or biennial herb to 2 m high, commonly 1 to 1.2 m. Generally one main stem with numerous branches, covered with dense, appressed, woolly hairs giving it a whitish-grey appearance. It has broad spiny wings along the stems. The flower heads are purple and round with spiny bracts. As A Soil Indicator: Low Calcium, High Potassium. High Manganese, High Magnesium, Very low Iron, High Sulfate, High Boron, Low humus in the soil , Limited bacteria, Compacted soil , Poor drainage Life cycle: Annual or biennial. Seed germinate at any time with a flush of germination in late summer to early autumn or late winter to spring. Plants that germinate in late summer form sizeable rosettes before the onset of winter. Seedlings from late autumn or early winter may suffer a very high natural mortality. Beneficial: Apparently once cultivated as a medicinal plant for treating skin sores and ulcers. The roots, young shoots and flower buds were eaten as vegetables. Flowers can be used to make a ‘rennet’ to set cheese. Mineral accumulator Detrimental: A weed of improved pastures, crops, fallows and disturbed areas. It is strongly competitive. Newly sown pastures are often overrun by Scotch Thistle in infested areas. It is too spiny to be readily grazed. Damages mouths and eyes of stock and contaminates wool. Toxicity: Not recorded as toxic
 Description: Blackberry Nightshade is an erect herb or small short-lived bushy shrub to 1 m high. The leaves are 2-7.5 cm long, entire or very shallowly lobed. The flowers are white, in short-stalked clusters of 4-12 flowers. Life cycle: Annual or rarely perennial herb or small shrub. Germination occurs mainly in spring and summer. Flowering occurs 5-9 weeks after germination and continues until the plant dies. Plant death is usually determined by environmental conditions rather than age and drought, cold or frost kills them. In some environments they behave as annuals and in milder conditions they act as perennials. Beneficial: Mature fruit used for jam. Used as a herb. Used in dyes in preserved fruits. Detrimental: It is an alternate host for diseases including anthracnose, Cercospora, blight, leaf spot and powdery mildew, at least 13 nematodes, 3 bacterial diseases, 7 fungal diseases including Rhizoctonia and over 30 crop viruses. Toxicity: The plant does not appear to be toxic at all times, and toxicity may be restricted to certain stages of growth, be influenced by particular growing conditions, or be a characteristic of only certain strains of what is a somewhat variable species. Immature fruit should be treated as toxic
 Description: A rosette forming, biennial or perennial plant with backward pointing lobes on its leaves and single bright yellow daisy-like flowers on long stalks and milky sap As A Soil Indicator: Very low Calcium, Very high Magnesium, High Chlorine, Low humus in the soil , Good drainage Life cycle: Biennial or perennial. Seeds germinate in autumn and to a lesser extent in spring. It grows mainly in the warmer months. Beneficial: Honey plant. Attracts beneficial insects. Leaves bitter but edible as a salad vegetable. Roasted roots are ground and used as a coffee substitute. Does not host Root Lesion Nematodes Naturalised Distribution: widely naturalised in southern and eastern Australia (i.e. in eastern Queensland, many parts of New South Wales and South Australia, the ACT, Victoria, Tasmania and south western Western Australia). Also naturalised in the southern parts of the Northern Territory, and Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island Toxicity: Suspected of causing hay fever.
 Description: A erect plant with an annual rosette of large, broad leaves with indented bases and long flowering stems with compact seed heads and a perennial, carrot like rootstock. It flowers from September to January and has fruit with spined wings and 3 warts or tubercles As A Soil Indicator: Very low Calcium, Very low Phosphorus, Very high Potassium, High Manganese, High Iron, High Copper, High Zinc, Little bacteria, High Salt, High Aluminium levels, low drainage Life cycle: Annual top and perennial rootstock. Seeds germinate mainly in autumn and spring and form a rosette and rootstock over winter. Around the 5 leaf stage the upper part of the root contracts pulling the crown deeper into the soil. Some may produce flowering stems in the summer. Top growth dies over summer leaving the perennial rootstock in the soil. Most spring germinating seedlings die. Shoots emerge from rootstocks in autumn and quickly form a large rosette that shades and crowds neighbouring plants. Flower stems emerge in late spring to early summer and form seed over summer. The stems and top growth dies off in summer or autumn though some rosette leaves may persist in summer moist areas. Beneficial: Used in herbal medicine for rubbing on skin to neutralise stinging nettle and other skin irritations Detrimental: it is often strongly competitive Toxicity: May contain potentially toxic amounts of oxalate that could lead to oxalate poisoning but it is rarely a problem in the field.
 Description: Fire-weed is an annual to short lived perennial, erect herb that normally grows 10 to 70 cm high. The leaves are 2-7 cm long and are entire or have lobed or toothed margins. The yellow daisy-like flower heads are loosely clustered. As A Soil Indicator: low Calcium, Very low Phosphorus, High Potassium, High Manganese, High Copper, Low Humus, Compacted Soils, Anaerobic bacteria, High Salt Life cycle: Annual, biennial or short lived perennial herb. Seeds germinate at any time of the year when moisture is present with the main germination's occurring between March and June. The seedlings grow rapidly and flowering commences within 6-10 weeks and continues until mid summer. The top growth dies off in the heat of summer and the plant dies or regenerates in early autumn. The density of Fire-weed varies from year to year depending on seasonal conditions. Plants typically produce 5,000-30,000 seeds per year. It forms a persistent seed bank in the soil. Seed may remain dormant in the soil for 10 years. It is most prolific on low to medium fertility Detrimental: Difficult to control. Toxic to horses and cattle. Often causes ill thrift in other grazing stock. Toxicity: Toxic to horses, cattle and alpacas. Sheep and goats are about 20 times more tolerant than cattle because they have rumen organisms that can detoxify the toxin. However deaths have been reported. All parts of the plant at all stages are toxic. Hay, silage and grain contaminated with Fire-weed plants or seeds can also be toxic.
 Description: Lantana is a perennial, evergreen, many branched, pleasant smelling, dense scrambling shrub to 2-4 m high with arched branches and young growth with small prickles and stiff hairs. Lantana is native to warm areas of both North and South America. It was introduced as an ornamental or hedge plant As A Soil Indicator: Very low Calcium, Very low Phosphorus, Very high Potassium, High Magnesium, High Manganese, Very high Iron, High Boron, Low humus in the soil, Good drainage, High Aluminum levels Life cycle: Seeds germinate at any time of the year that is warm and moist with most germinating after the first summer storms. Initial growth is slow as root systems are established. Establishment under dense infestations is usually poor. They grow for 2-3 season before flowering mainly in spring and summer. Growth is greatest in warm, wet weather and almost stops in cool weather or during dry periods. Detrimental: Serious bushland weed of eastern Australia infesting over 4 million hectares. Produces dense thickets that prevent recruitment of native species, alter soil chemistry and nutrient cycling. Potentially allelopathic. Weed of plantation crops and pastures, citrus, coconut, timber and rubber plantations. Listed a one of the "Worlds Worst Weeds" and a "Weed of National Significance" Toxicity: Toxic to stock and humans but no cases recorded for WA. Young animals and those not accustomed to the plant appear to be at greatest risk.
 Description: A sedge with brown seed heads subtended by 3-4 leaves at the top of a triangular stem with basal leaves and a creeping wiry rhizome with underground oval tubers or "nuts". As A Soil Indicator: Low Calcium, Low Phosphorus, High Potassium, High Magnesium, Very high Iron, Low humus in the soil, Compacted soils, Little biology Life cycle: Perennial grass. Seeds germinate in spring and the plant grows over summer forming rhizomes and tubers and flowers in autumn to winter. Tubers shoot in spring and extend to the surface to produce a basal bulb that produces the leaves. These grow over summer producing more tubers and rhizomes and flower in autumn to winter. Under good conditions plants may flower when they are 3-6 weeks old. Beneficial: Grazed to a limited extent by horses and cattle but of little forage value. Fragrant roots used in perfumes. Tubers are edible and were a source of food for aboriginals. Used to bind soil to prevent wind erosion. Detrimental: Can act as a host for nematodes and other insects. Not recorded as toxic
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